Table 2 Forest ecosystem responses to elevated CO₂ and climate change

Direct

• Photosynthesis

• Litter decomposition

• Water use/transport

• Foliar nutrient status

• Flowering/phenology

• Genetic change

• Regeneration

• Tree species distribution and stand composition

• Growth and mortality

• Wood density/quality

• Frost/storm damage

Indirect

• Increased fire frequency/intensity

• Habitat composition and structure

• Disease impacts

• Wood supply

• More insect pests

• Erosion and soil loss

• Increased invasive species

• Water yield

• Water quality