Fig. 2

Schematic allocation of four different adaptation strategies in relation to costs and benefits of adaptation to climate change, uncertainties associated with climate change and the role of decision-makers’ risk attitudes (risk aversion). BAU is implied only if the costs of adaptation exceed the benefits, and otherwise it is worth adapting. Reactive strategy is suitable for low-cost adaptation and if the foreseen climate change impacts and damages are not irreversible. Otherwise, active adaptation would be more suitable. Robust adaptation is the most costly strategy. However, it guarantees provisioning of forest ecosystem services under all climate change scenarios. The degree of risk aversion of decision-makers defines their attitude towards taking the risk of not adapting (low-risk aversion) or making sure of adapting to climate change (high-risk aversion)