Fig. 3

Protection against herbivory (PAH), which quantifies one component of the facilitative effect of C. stenophylla shrubs on the survival of seedlings and saplings, across the four climatic aridity zones and the three grazing intensities treatments. Data are means ± SE (n = 3 per treatment). For a particular growth stage and grazing intensity, different letters (lowercase for mild grazing, uppercase for severe grazing) indicate significant differences between climate zones (Tukey HSD tests, P < 0.05). For a particular growth stage and climate zone, number signs indicate significant differences between the two grazing intensities, and for a particular climate zone and grazing intensity, asterisks indicate significant differences between seedling and sapling stages (t tests, P < 0.05)