Table 2 Baseline conditions, from severely degraded mined land to relatively pristine primary forest

Surface mined land

1

1

1

Generally, all topsoils were removed, possibly stockpiled; hydrology disrupted (1)

Reclamation: restore topography and place topsoil; plant (often exotics)

Row crops

1–2

1–2

1–3

Soil erosion (1); lowered soil organic matter (2); turn rows may be habitat (3); fertility enriched (especially phosphorus) (1–3)

Climate-smart agriculture

Agrosylvopastoral systems (integrated trees, animals)

Taungya (woody and agricultural species interplanted during early stages of plantation establishment)

Reconstruction: afforestation, cluster, or nucleation planting; natural regeneration

Abandoned pasture

1–3

1–3

1–2

Silvopastoral systems (combined forestry and grazing)

Reconstruction: afforestation, cluster, or nucleation planting; natural regeneration; fire management

Trees outside forests

2–3

2–3

2–3

Refers to isolated trees (2); windbreaks, fence or ditch lines (3); early stages of non-forest land such as pasture restored by cluster or nucleation planting may resemble “trees outside forests” (3)

Fire management

Grazing protection or management

Alley cropping

2–3

2–4

1–4

May be referred to as trees outside forests; agrisilvicultural systems, a combination of crops and trees (1 to 4, depending on the species and density of woody stems)

Native woody species in hedges, agricultural species in alleys between hedges

Home gardens

2–3

2–4

1–4

May be referred to as trees outside forests; agrisilvicultural systems, a combination of crops and trees (1 to 4, depending on the species and density of woody stems)

Multi-story combination of native trees and crops around homesteads

Industrial tree crops (e.g., rubber, oil palm, nut orchards)

3–4

1–3

1–3

May be referred to as plantations or trees outside forests (1–3, depending on the species and density of any native species in understory)

Integrated multi-story mixture of plantation species; shade trees for plantation crops

Intercropping with native trees

Clear and plant with native trees

Short-rotation intensive culture-exotic species

3–4

1–2

2–3

Could be an early stage of reconstruction, depending upon soil degradation; could be industrial plantation (2–3, depending on the overstory density and density of any native species in understory)

Clear and plant to native species

Convert to native species by natural regeneration or underplanting, possibly with overstory thinning to create gaps

Short-rotation intensive culture-native species

3–4

2–3

2–4

Could be an early stage of reconstruction; could be industrial plantation (2–3, depending on the overstory density and density of any native species in understory)

Lengthen rotation, allow self-thinning or thin to create gaps or variable density thinning; underplant with other species

Swidden farming-short fallow

2–3

2–3

2–3

Temporary agricultural plot formed by cutting back and burning off vegetative cover; length of fallow too short for soil fertility to recover (2–3, depending on the density of any native trees in overstory)

Lengthen fallow; native woody species planted and left to grow during fallow

Reconstruction: afforestation, cluster, or nucleation planting; framework species planted; assisted natural regeneration

Swidden farming-long fallow

3–4

3–4

3–4

Temporary agricultural plot formed by cutting back and burning off vegetative cover; length of fallow long enough for soil fertility to recover (3–4, depending on the density of any native trees in overstory herbs in understory)

Lengthen fallow; native woody species planted and left to grow during fallow

Reconstruction: afforestation, cluster, or nucleation planting; framework species planted; assisted natural regeneration

Degraded forest-scrub

2–3

2–3

3–4

Native forest degraded by frequent wildfire, over grazing, exploitive cutting, possibly for charcoaling (3–4, depending on the presence of any native trees, herbs in understory)

Manage fire (lengthen return interval, burn early in rainy season) with natural regeneration

Reconstruction: afforestation, cluster, or nucleation planting; framework species planting

Degraded forest-derived savannah

2–3

2–3

2–4

Native forest degraded by too frequent wildfire, over grazing (2–4, depending on the presence of any native trees, herbs in understory)

Manage fire (lengthen return interval, burn early in rainy season) with natural regeneration

Reconstruction: afforestation, cluster, or nucleation planting; framework species planted

Degraded forest-derived woodland

3–4

2–4

3–4

Native forest degraded by frequent wildfire, over grazing, exploitive cutting, (3–4, depending on the density of native trees, herbs in understory)

Manage fire (lengthen return interval, burn early in rainy season) and manage grazing; natural regeneration

Reconstruction: clear and afforest, cluster, nucleation or framework species planting

Rehabilitation: retain scattered trees, afforest, cluster, nucleation, or framework species planting

Degraded forest-regrowth

3–4

3–4

2–4

Native forest degraded by too frequent wildfire, over grazing, Swidden agriculture, exploitive cutting, (2–4, depending on the density of native trees, herbs in understory)

Manage fire (re-introduce if adapted)

Rehabilitation: alter structure, underplant, natural regeneration

Replace: clear and plant

Managed, artificially regenerated forest plantation

3–4

2–4

Planted forests of exotic (2–3) or native species (3–4) are referred to as plantation forests (with single or few species, even age class, uniform planting density)

Rehabilitate by adding native species and/or thinning to create a complex structure, uneven age stand

Managed, artificially regenerated forest-planted forest

3–5

3–5

Planted forests of indigenous species are increasingly referred to as forms of semi-natural forest or modified natural forest (3–5 depending on the degree of naturalness, rotation length, including mixed species and age classes and variable planting density)

Rehabilitate by adding native species and/or thinning to create a complex structure, uneven age stand

Managed, naturally regenerated forest—few species

3–4

3–5

Naturally regenerated forest of native species, few species may be natural (4–5) or a result of previous high grading or, otherwise, lack of regeneration of some species (3–4)

Manage fire (re-introduce if adapted)

Rehabilitation: alter structure, thin and underplant any missing species or natural regeneration

Replace: clear and plant

Managed, naturally regenerated forest—many species

3–5

4–5

4–5

Naturally regenerated forest of native species, most native species present (5) or some lacking, a result of previous high grading or otherwise lack of regeneration of some species (4)

Manage fire (re-introduce if adapted)

Rehabilitation: transform structure to increase complexity (even age to uneven age)

Primary forest

4–5

4–5

5

Naturally regenerated forest of native species, where there are no clearly visible indications of human activities and the ecological processes are not significantly disturbed. Older life stages may be structurally complex and termed “old-growth” or better, old forest

Protect, add buffer of naturally or artificially regenerated native species stands