Fig. 1

Involved processes affected by water (mainly during the summer period) and frost stress (mainly during the winter period). Positive (solid) and negative (dashed) effects of stresses are expected on three functional components, namely carbon metabolism (B), phenological processes (C), and hydraulic safety (D). Positive relations between timing events (phenological stages such as leaf fall and budburst) and other processes indicate that earlier event induces higher level, and vice versa. All represented processes are interrelated either directly and indirectly. Both winter and summer stresses affect the same processes either synergistically or antagonistically. Main effects are reported, although non-linear and thresholds could make the response more complex. The numbers refer to studies that document these effects (1. Morin et al. 2007; 2. O’Brien et al. 2014; 3. Améglio et al. 2004; 4. McDowell et al. 2008; 5. Bréda et al. 2006; 6. Tyree et al. 1993; 7. Schuster et al. 2014; 8. Xie et al. 2015; 9. Rinne et al. 1997; 10. Chaves et al. 2002; 11. Charrier et al. 2011; 12. Ghesquière et al. 2014; 13. Hänninen 1991; 14. Sperry et al. 1998; 15. Charra-Vaskou et al. 2016; 16. Charrier et al. 2014)